Unit 5 - Reasons for establishing the empire

Author: Napoleon Bonaparte

Author Bio: Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. He is most noted for founding the french first empire and reorganizing the political map / structure of Europe during the early to mid 19th century.

Date/Context: December 1804. Napoleon was crowned emperor on December 2, 1804, so it makes sense he would rapidly relate his mindset.

Summary: Napoleon describes himself in the third person so that he can seem more aloof and careing for the French. He describes the decision process as painful and that he repeatedly had to seek counsel from the senate. After describing his thought process he describes the religious significance of having the pope officiate, then he talks about the symbolism of his oath.

Quotes: "Napoleon was, ... Emperor of the French"

Unit 4 - The advancement of learning

Author: Sir Francis Bacon

Author Bio: Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England. He is most noted for his scientific work during the enlightenment.

Date/Context: 1605 The first of Bacon’s writings on the nature of science and the scientific method. He also had a view of the unity of knowledge, both scientific and non-scientific.

Summary: Bacon discusses some of the basic fears that people have when confronted by contemporary scientific thought and attempts to dispel them by saying science exists to study God in nature. We see in this passage a prime example of the argument that scientists are trying to prove God's existence in the world y studying the world. Bacon also says that science is and must be the guard against superstition and that by doing so it is a guard against heresies.

Quotes: "Natural philosophy is ... the most approved nourishment for faith ..."

Unit 5

Author: The National Assembly

Author Bio: Its members had been elected to represent the estates of the realm: the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility) and the Third Estate (which, in theory, represented all of the commoners and, in practice, represented the bourgeoisie). The Third Estate had been granted "double representation" that is, twice as many delegates as each of the other estates.

Date/Context: From its inception, the Estates-General was in contention over organizational practices. To combat this, the Third Estate convened to form a new legislative body known as the National Assembly which was formed on June 17, 1789. Three days later, the members of this were locked out of their meeting place (albeit unintentionally) and so they marched to a tennis court to draft a new constitution for France; this would come to be one of the most important documents of the revolution.

Summary: The Tennis Court Oath was due to growing discontent of the Third Estate in France. Louis XVI wanted to maintain the absolute monarchy while rulers of the Third Estate banned together to meet and dicuss reform proposed by Necker the Prime Minister.  As such, the estates came together in order to vote on the reforms by head count instead of just estate; causing the Third Estate to have a greater impact in the votes.  The plan was to meet at Menus Plaisirs, but when the group arrived they found the doors locked.  Instead of breaking up and being ruled by the king, once again, they relocated to a nearby indoor tennis court, and as such, the Tennis Court Oath began.  The Third Estate truly believed in the reforms and a debate quickly arose as to how the reforms would take place and discussed how they could protect themselves from those in royal authority.  A retreat to Paris was proposed in order to protect themselves from the king’s army, but Mounier, a major playor in the TCO, said it would be too revolutionary and cause even more conflict.  As a result, Mounier proposed that they write an oath of allegiance to stating that the estate would remain assembled until the constitution was written and all actions to disband the group by the king’s army would be resisted at all cost.  The document was quickly agreed upon, written, and signed by 576 men of the Third Estate, and later named the Tennis Court Oath.  The oath simply stated that the power of the people resided not in the king, but in the people themselves and as a result, a week later, Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estate General with the plans to write a constitution. 

Quotes: "Decrees that all members of this assembly shall immediately take a solemn oath not to separate".

Unit 4 - "A Vindication of the Rights of Women,"

In the excerpt titled, "A Vindication of the Rights of Women," Wollstonecraft talked about the perception and even the treatment of women in a patriarchal society. She argued that women should have rights similar, if not equal to the men of her society. She even supported her issues by stating that women should not act like obedient slaves to the men of society. 

Her overall tone showed that she is mad about the treatment that women of society receive. For me, being a man, it made me feel demeaning, because personally I'm an advocate of equality. But I guess it's understandable at the time. The treatment of women back then was close to a slave and without her outraged cry, it would have never plant the seed of change.

Unit 6

In this primary document Friedrich Engels speaks lowly of the conditions that everyday men have to face while working in the factories during the industrial evolution. He speaks of the pollution being spread and contaminating the air, tight work and living spaces, the filth, and the debris lying around. He talks of how men are being treated like cattle with nowhere to go. Though the space is tight one can also get lost with the disgusting nooks and many dirty alleys. He expresses his concern not for the new developing technology but for the man behind the technology is concerned for the well being of the men both for health and the overall happiness. He recognizes that the working conditions are unjust and I believe this is the start where others began to to notice the unfairness too. This is when we began to see a call for unions and protests for better conditions. Friedrich Engels is the start for the change in working reforms. The quote that I found that stood out would be the last sentence which is "Everything which here arouses horror and indignation is of recent origin, belongs to the industrial epoch."

Unit 6: The Fall of the Bastille

Author Bio: This is a statement from an observer of the fall of the Bastille. The exact person is not known to history, but they would have been known as a person of France.

Date/Context: The date is obviously the fourteenth of July in 1789, since that is the day this historic revolutionary event occured. The context is the height of discontent in France. People are dying due to food shortages and economic conditions. The urban masses are demanding something be done, and  today will be the day that change shall commence.
Summary: The text is giving a short description of the events that happened that day. It details the soldiers final willingness to stop the masses, that they cannot harm so many people. It describes the soldiers dragged through the streets, the assassinations, and the soldiers taken to the Grève. In the end it describes the King's reaction to what had happened. The text is mainly focusing on the events, and it serves it's purpose well by giving a little bit of info on all major actions that happened that day.
Key Quotes:
"After a few moments' silence the king said 'It is then a revolt.' 'No, sire,' replied the duke. 'It is a revolution.'"

Unit 6: Utopian Socialism

Author Bio: Robert Owen was the son of a saddle maker. He left school at the age of 9 to work in a draper's shop. When he was 18 he borrowed money and set up a small cotton mill in Manchester. Within 10 years of starting that he was very wealthy and the joint owner of the New Lanark mills.

Date: Utopian Socialism was written in 1816. It was delivered in the address on the opening of an "Institution for the Formation of Character".

Summary: In this writing there is a notable emphasis on morality as an essential ingredient of change. Also in the text there are principles listed. The first one states that there is the power of every individual to form his own character. Second, that the affections are at the command of the individual. Third, that it is necessary that a large portion of mankind should exist in ignorance and poverty, in order to secure to the remaining part such a degree of happiness as they now enjoy.

Quote: "Every society which exists at present, as well as every society which history records, has been formed and governed on a belief in the following notions, assumed as first principles."

Unit 6 PDP- The Decleration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Author Bio: The declaration of the rights of man and of citizen was issued by the National Assembly which were influenced by Thomas Jefferson and the General Lafayette.

Time Period: The document was passed during the French Revolution in 1789 which was a time where human and civil rights were important.

Summary: The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract , and the separation of powers. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights as was the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776).

Quotes: "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good."
"The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression"

Unit 5: The Grievances of Carcassonne

Author Bio: This writing is from the representatives of the Third Estate in Carcassonne. Carcassonne is located in Southern France. The author of the document is unknown to historians today. It is likely that the writer originated from the bourgeoisie and spoke on behalf of the people in the Third Estate. It addresses their wants and necessities in regards to how France should be governed.

Date Context: "Grievances of Carcassonne" is from James H. Robinson and Charles A. Beard's Readings in Modern History, which was published in 1908.

Summary: The writing specifically addresses concerns as to how the people of the Third Estate feel France should be governed. It includes topics such as religion, equality, and civil liberties. At first it requests that the king ban all public worship that is not Roman Catholicism. The author also tends to criticize the king and the current state of government in France.

Unit 5 - "An End to the Woes of Anarchy"

Author Bio: The author of "An End to the Woes of Anarchy, Napoleon Bonaparte, was a French military and political leader and he became more well known during the French Revolution. He was emperor of France from 1804 to 1814 and Napoleon dominated much of Europe during his reign. He won most of the wars that he fought and helped build up a large empire until the collapse of it. He is known as one of the greatest commanders in history and his legacy as a political and military leader continue on.

Context/Background: "An End to the Woes of Anarchy" was written during the French Revolution, which then leads to the uprising of Napoleon Bonaparte. France was in a state of turmoil and Napoleon saw this as an opportunity to gain control of France and fix the problems France faced. He wanted to establish a government that was favored by the people, however he still wanted to be in complete control of this government he wanted to create. By still wanting absolute power, Napoleon created more of a dictatorship in France, than a government that favored the people.

Summary: Napoleon thought his duties once he assumed the throne of France were to establish the destinies of France, determine the fate of the people in France, ensure stability and order, and end anarchy in France. Also, by gaining the throne Napoleon states he is done with Italy, and wants to let the people in France create their own fate, thus honoring the government and himself.

Key Quotes:

• "I gave you a prince of my own blood to govern you..."
• "...establishing the forever destinies of France, to determine the fate of all those people who formed a part of the empire, to insure for all the benefits of stability and order, and to put and end everywhere to the owes of anarchy."

Unit 5- Duties of Man

Author Bio: The author of "The Duties of Man" Giuseppe Mazzini, was an Italian author who wrote to promoting the unification of Italy in the 1830-40s. Mazzini was considered a liberal at the time for his nationalist ideas, but they nonetheless became important as Italy began merging into one united country by 1870. His works helped to lay the foundations for the constitutional monarchy that would be established in Italy.

Context/Background:  During the 1800s, Italy and other European countries such as Germany were comprised of many small nation-states left over from the Middle Ages through the Renaissance and Enlightenment. As Europe grew into a more modern age, however, unification became increasingly prominent and was propagated to the masses by advocates such as Mazzini in order to raise nationalism. These hopes for a united Italy finally came about by 1870 through Count Camillo Cavour, whose efforts united the diverse regions and created the independent state of Italy.

Summary: Mazzini first states that a man's absolute primary duty is to humanity and his family, the next and hardly less important duty is to his country and the brotherhood and unity focused towards the higher goal of a united country. He declares that united, independent countries are the highest order of nation, and what God originally intended before they were corrupted by greedy monarchs. The "Divine design" of unity will, Mazzini writes, transcend class and monarchy to unite all people of the country in harmony. The ideal nation would be one whose people are united by language, economic tendencies, culture, and history. When the people of a country are united together in brotherhood, this heavenly purpose can be fulfilled.

Important Quote: "O my brother, love your Country! Our country is our Home, the house that God has given us, placing therein a numerous family that loves us, and whom we love... Our country is our common workshop, whence the products of our activity are sent forth for the benefit of the whole world."

Unit 5: "Virtue and Terror"

Unit 5- “Virtue and Terror”

Author Bio: Author- Maximilien Robespierre (ca. 1758-1794) - French lawyer and later politician who was born in Arras, France; he had an important and influential role in The French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. During the French Revolution he advocated for universal male suffrage in France, the abolishment of slavery in the French colonies and played a major role in executing King Louis XVI, helping to pave the way for the establishment of the first French republic. He is arguably best known for his notorious role in the Region of Terror in which Robespierre used the Committee of Public Safety to help cement a totalitarian police state in France where thousands upon thousands of people were executed as supposed traitors to the Revolution.

Speaker: Maximilien Robespierre

Date/Context:  February 5th, 1794, Maximilien Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in order to convince them of the reasons for the need to execute massive amounts of suspected traitors to the Revolution and to establish a totalitarian regime that would squash out any future opposers to the Revolution and the high set of moral principles and values that is at the very heart of the revolution.

Summary: Maximilien Robespierre believes that the only way to truly achieve the virtues of the French Revolution (the virtues being of course Liberté, égalité, fraternité) is through the necessary evil of terror. Virtue and terror go hand in hand in defense against the tyranny of the monarch and to fulfill justice for the people of France. In order to eliminate any remaining traces of the monarchy, you need to use terror to fully eradicate the notion of absolute power over the people of France. In peacetime, the strength of government is in virtue, however the strength of a government in a time of revolution is determined by both virtue and terror. In conclusion, Robespierre is declaring that terror and virtue are interconnected with each other, terror is needed to demolish any remaining influence of the monarchy, and most importantly terror and virtue play a pivotal role in maintaining liberty, equality, and justice in the time of revolution.

Key Quotations:   

“. . . we want to fulfill the wishes of nature, accomplish the destiny of humanity, keep the promises of philosophy, absolve Providence from the long reign of crime and tyranny.”

“If the strength of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the strength of popular government in revolution is both virtue and terror; terror without virtue as disastrous, virtue without terror is powerless.”     

“The government of revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny.”  

Unit 5: The Dependent Poor

Author Bio: David Davies lived from 1742-1819. He was a Welsh clergyman who was highly interested in the lives of the poor. He studied their labor, wages, costs etc., and published these findings in Cases of Labourers in Husbandry Stated and Considered, which contains The Dependent Poor.

Date Context: This excerpt is a part of the book, Cases of Labourers in Husbandry Stated and Considered, which was written in 1795.

Summary: At this time, rich farmers realized that it would be most profitable to claim as many farms as they could and then combine them into one big farm. This, however, meant that those who had previously owned and worked on those farms were now unemployed. He states that "as many individuals as possible in a state should possess an interest in the soil; because this attaches them strongly to the country and its constitution, and makes them zealous and resolute in defending them," however then goes on to mention that though that is the way things should have been, it seems that quite the opposite had occurred.

Key Quote: "And the great plenty of working hands always to be had when wanted, having kept down the price of labor below its proper level, the consequence is universally felt in the increased number of dependent poor."

Unit 5: "We Germans Fear God, and Naught Else in the World"

Author Bio: Otto Von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman who held power throughout Europe, and created a powerful German empire under Prussian rule. He was born in 1815 and died in 1898. He was the chancellor of Germany and the prime minister of Prussia. He created a powerful empire while intentionally leaving Austria out. 

Time Period: This was a speech given to the German Reichstag in 1888 saying unity demands great goals. In 1888 Germany had been annexing many territories. The German Empire was made great by Bismarck and he helped them to defeat many countries such as Denmark and Austria.

Summary: Bismarck called for an expansion of the army to meet existing and potential foreign threats. Near the end of his long speech, Bismarck told the house: “We Germans fear God and  naught else in the world!

Quotes: 

• "We Germans fear God, and naught else in the world."
• "We must be able to face our fate placidly with that self-reliance and confidence in God which are ours when we are strong in our cause is just."
• "It is this fear of God which makes us love and cherish peace."

Unit 5: A Citizen Devoted to the Republic

Authors bio: author- Napoleon Bonaparte(1769-1821) he was born in France in a middle class family. From a young age napoleon knew he wanted to be a military leader. He is considered on of the world greats military leaders.  He went to the military college of Brienne for five years and then the military academy in Paris. He wanted to take over Europe and had aspirations for the world.

Date/context: This was a speech given on nov 10 1799. He was addressing the people of France to explain his role in the overthrow of the directory and the establishment of the consulate. He had just became the leader of the consulate and wanted to make sure he had the support of the people.

Summary: He explains that he found a broken France when he came back from his Egyptian campaign. He says that all the parties wanted his support but the good leader he is said that he does not want to be confined to a party. The council of elders came to him to remove the legislative bod. They gave him the authority to do what is necessary to remove them. He thought it was his duty to France to accept the command. The council assembled at Saint Cloud and the republican troops were there for security but on the inside of the council of 500 there were assassins yelling death threats.  The meeting was disorganized. He went out in front of them to assure them the execution of the new plan. He went out unarmed and alone and assured the council of elders of it power. Some assassins attacked him but his soldiers stopped them but one did get hurt. The assassins tried to threaten the president to outlaw him. He he rescued him from the attacks. They cleared out the trouble makers and the new proposal was deliberated. Then he just tried to make them see him as a good guy.

Key quotes: 
"It was a fierce cry of assassins against the power destine to repress them."

"Frenchmen, you will doubtless recognize in this conduct the zeal of a soldier of liberty, a citizen devoted to the republic."

How Are Men to Provide for Their Families?

Author Bio: J.F.C. Harrison was a British author who was really popular at this time. He was born in 1921, and during his life  spend his time educating himself and others through lectures and reading. he wrote many books to an informed public to help them understand their society and his point of view. He is well regarded for his many publications. 
Date Context: The excerpt assigned to me was a part of a workers petition, backing a Staple Factory. This was written well into the industrial revolution, so it is clear that the stamce it gives for the growth of industry is regarded by the time period. 
Summary: In the lightnof many workers being laid off, the beginning illustrates how this affects these now unemployed workers' families. It then calls the reader to action to look at the facts presented to understand the voice of its workers. These men have been replaced by machines, who can clearly surpass the men in their jobs and benefit the company immensely. The men who petition against this believe it instills the wrong values for the work and for their children, and that this world is more just than to replace man with machine. 

Unit 5 - The People and the Fatherland (1807-1808)

Authors Bio: Author - Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) - Born in Rammenau, Germany; Tutor; Philosopher; Founding Figure for German Idealism; He attended the Pforta school (1774-80), University of Jena (1780), and the University of Leipzig (1781-84); His major influence was Immanuel Kant. Kant was influential in the way Fichte thought, or viewed different topics. In 1792, Fichte submitted his Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung ("An Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation") to Kant who published this work. The Versuch explained the conditions in which revealed religion was possible; In 1795, Fichte became an editor of Philosophisches Journal; Other important works of Fichte's include Nachgelassene Werke (“Posthumous Works”) and of the Sämmtliche Werke (“Complete Works”). These works had a centralized focus on the topic of the unification of Germany, national recovery, etc; He died in 1814, in Berlin, Germany.

speaker - Johann Gottlieb Fichte

Date/Context: Written between 1807 and 1808, Fichte delivered numerous addresses regarding the frustration of German disunity and the drastic change in German Nationalism that arose in the 19th century. Germany was not officially unified until about 60 years later. Despite that, many people wanted Germany to be unified, and these same people offered an idealistic and practical foundation which resulted in new policies. Germany was unified in 1871. 

Summary: Fichte explains that the oldest common ancestors opposed the worldwide rule of the Romans, and believed that the people of Germany who were faced with Napoleonic rule should potentially oppose it as well. Fichte asked the question of why the German's would just give up what their ancestors fought for, and surrender to Napoleon and his tyrant-like rule. Johann continued to explain that Germans should fight to be Germans, instead of the subjects or more powerful nations.

Key Quotes: "... a true German could wish to live only to and to remain a German, and to have his sons the same."

Unit 4: "What is Enlightenment?"

Author Bio: Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724 and passed away on February 12, 1804. Hometown of Konigsberg Germany. He attended the university of Konigsberg at the age of 16. He Is considered to be one of the central figures of modern philosophy and took part in the scientific enlightenment. He created Kantian Philosophy in which He focused mainly on ethics. His most famous book is the critique of pure reason. It is considered to be one of the most influential works in the history of philosophy. One of his popular beliefs was the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether they fulfill our duty as human beings.

Date/Context: In this time period Kant believed that man needed to be released from their intellectual chains which were laziness and cowardice according to Kant. During this time period there were many more enlightened thinkers such as Rousseau and Newton. This was a time of intellectual growth and many new thoughts and ideas were brought about. 

Summary: According to Immanuel Kant, enlightenment was man’s release from “self-incurred tutelage.” The enlightenment was a time in which man could release themselves from intellectual bondage. He wanted people to be enlightened in order to excel in the world.  Tutelage occurs because of two things, laziness and cowardice. Cowardice is fed by the laziness so they work together. The general public feared to use their reason because they were not willing to venture in to uncharted waters. Kant presents the requirements for enlightenment. The foremost requirement is freedom. He believes that freedom to express oneself honestly is paramount for enlightenment. This is important because when a man is allowed to freely express his thoughts and opinions without penalization, he will offer ideas without fear and restriction.

Key Quotations:

• "Enlightenment is man's release from his self-incurred tutelage."
• "Laziness and cowardice are the reasons why so great a portion of mankind, after nature has long since discharged them from external direction, nevertheless remains under lifelong tutelage, and why it is so easy for others to set themselves up as their guardians."

Unit 6: "Sybil"

Author Bio: Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) was a novelist and politician and served as a prime minister in two terms. He was one of the most ardent reformers of working conditions in the factories. He hoped to gain working class support for a group of reforming aristocrats in his Tory party.

Date/Context: A little before this book was written, the industrial revolution in Britain occurred. The economy changed from agricultural to industrial and people started moving from farms to factories, especially women and children. Specifically, Disraeli used information from the subject of the Chartist movement to write his novel Sybil. The Chartist movement was a working class political reformist movement that sought for universal male suffrage and parliamentary reform.

Summary: Disraeli explains how so many people are coming to work in the industries of all walks of life, of different races, nationalities, and genders. Even with all these differences, no one can tell the difference between each person though, not even their employers, unless you looked close as they were covered in dirt and coal, therefore no one notices their suffering.

Key Quotations: 

• “Those worthy gentlemen, too, appear to have been singularly unconscious of the sufferings of the little trappers, which was remarkable, as many of them were in their own employ.”
• “They endure that punishment which philosophical philanthropy has invented for the direst criminals, and which those criminals deem more terrible than the death for which it is substituted.”

Understanding the French Revolution - Thesis & Medium

As you prepare your unit 5 project, you need to keep the "Big Picture" in mind.  In short, you must have a guiding thesis statement to tie your project together.  In a comment to this post, please identify your choice medium and your thesis statement.  If you are working with a partner, make sure to include your partner's name on the comment.

Example Comment:
Medium - Poem
Partner - Mrs. Kozel
Thesis - The social, political, and economic impacts of the Industrial Revolution shaped 19th century Europe and contributed to a new world order.

Unit 4: "The Social Contract"

Author Bio: Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was part of the Enlightenment. Rousseau was known for his ideas on man was disorder, anarchy, and selfish but they could put that all aside if they wanted government to work. He did not believe in the divine right of kings and thought government was to enforce the will of the people and ensure natural rights. Most of his works criticized the education system and social conventions of the time.

Date/Context: Rousseau was tired of the constraints of society in the education systems and social conventions. He wanted men to have the only bondage be the bondage of natural necessity and this freedom would lead to their happiness. He found the the people controlling the government seemed to put them in a state far worse than the good one they were at in the state of nature. He outlined a system that would be for the common good and that would solve what he called the concerns of the time.

Summary: Rousseau outlined that unless the human race was to perish, they must change their manner of life.this change is an assemblage of forces that produces the liberty of men but how can you do that without the men remaining as free as before, this is the question the Social Contract answers. All tricked of the Social Contract have a single point, the total alienation of each associate, and all his rights, to the whole community and every individual gives himself to all but not to any individual. The public and individuals must work together for this to work. By violating the contract, a sovereign would be annihilated and the whole United body is one, what you do to one is done to all.

Key Quotations:

• “Where shall we find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole aggregate force the person and the property of each individual; and by which every person, while united with all, shall obey himself, and remain as free as before the union?” 
• “The man who had till then regarded none but himself, perceives that he must act on other principles, and learns to consult his reason before he listens to his propensities.”

Unit 4 - "On the Movement of the Earth"

Author Bio: Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) was a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer, who created a model that made the Sun the center of the universe instead of the Earth. He had a famous book called On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres and it was published right before his death in 1543. This book triggered the Copernican Revolution. Copernicus also made other discoveries that contributed to the Scientific Revolution.

Date/Context: Copernicus wrote "On the Movement of the Earth" in 1543, right before his death, and also during the Renaissance era. During the Renaissance era, it was time of questioning of everything, and in this text Copernicus was then questioning the then current views of the universe. The Renaissance era was time of new and flourishing ideas being distributed to the public. Copernicus wrote this in order to give the public a new idea about the universe and question what earlier scientists put forth about the universe.

Summary: Copernicus fears that his views in this book might see the disapproval of the public because the public was already used to the ideas they have bee taught. He wanted to think of a method of how these "spheres" moved by mathematics because he saw the inconsistency of the views of the previous mathematicians. Mathematicians were then unsure about the movement of the sun and the moon that they had no real constant of motion and revolution by the two and the other planets. Copernicus then read through the ideas of the other philosophers about the universe and realized that the earth does in fact move. He then realized that the other planets have to move with relation to the earth or it would produce mass chaos.

Key Quotations:

• "For the first time mathematicians are so unsure of the movements of the Sun and Moon that they cannot even explain or observe the constant length of the seasonal year."
• "I pondered long upon this uncertainty of mathematical tradition in establishing the motions of the system of the spheres."

Unit 4 - "The Mortal God"

    "Unit 4 - "The Mortal God"


Author Bio: Author- Thomas Hobbes (ca. 1588-1679)- English philosopher who was born in Westport, England; aside from political philosophy Hobbes contributed to the fields of history, jurisprudence, geometry,  the physics of gases, theology, ethics, and general philosophy.  Hobbes is often considered to be one of the founders of political philosophy, an overall well versed individual who helped to change the foundations of philosophy and individuality in Europe.


Date/ Context: Thomas Hobbes magnum opus, called Leviathan, published in the year 1651 and echoing the insecurity and fears of the English Revolution that escalated into the English Civil War between the royalists and parliamentary roundheads (1642-1446) and having recently seen the beheading of the sovereign monarch Charles I, even Hobbes himself had to leave England due to his aristocratic ties.


Summary: Thomas Hobbes express themes of power and the justification for absolute monarchs as a necessary evil in order to suppress man's violent nature and to encourage a peaceful existence.  Without the existence of absolute monarchs, man fights with his fellow man over the desire to obtain the same things, becoming enemies who will stop at nothing to destroy each other.  Foreign invaders having no one to fear, will easily deprive their fellow man of the hard earned fruits of their labors and take away their personal liberties.  It is part of man's nature to be violent, acting violently for three reasons: first for competition, secondarily due to insecurity, and thirdly due to glory.  Without an all powerful figure to keep man in check, man is inevitably bound to engage in war, leavening a trail of destruction and suffering in its wake.  In conclusion, man needs absolute monarchs to unify them as one country, with one identity, encouraging peace and prosperity, not war.      



Key Quotations:

"And therefore if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and in the way to their end, which is principally their own conservation . . . endeavor to destroy, or subdue one another."

"And from hence it comes to pass, that . . . an invader has no more to fear than another man's single power; if one plant, sow, build and possess a convenient seat, others may probably be expected to come prepared with forces united, to dispossess, and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labor, but also of his life, or liberty. "

"So that in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of quarrel. First, competition; secondly, insecurity; thirdly, glory."

"(Therefore it is clear) that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war."

Unit 4 - Principles of Analysis – Induction and God: Optics (1704)

Author Bio: Author - Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - Born in Woolsthorpe, England; Mathematician, and Physicist; He attended University of Cambridge's Trinity College, and graduated with a Master of Arts degree in 1669; Newton went on to be a professor who delivered an annual course of lectures. His most renowned pieces of work included the invention of the reflecting telescope in 1668; In 1687, after many months of nonstop work, Newton published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. It is known as the most influential book on physics and better known as Principia.

speaker - Sir Isaac Newton

Date/Context: Written in 1704, this was the time period of the Scientific Revolution. During the Scientific Revolution, beliefs and thoughts were changing. As a result, this led to advancements in science, and using science and reason rather than religious beliefs .

Summary: Sir Isaac Newton began by explaining matter and the concept that God produced matter, impenetrable moveable particles. Newton explains the first creation where all of these particles were made and formed. Continuing on, Newton discusses the idea that no matter how these objects were created, any amount of chaos would not have resulted the the tranquil solar system. Furthermore, he made the point that God and the Principles of motion were the cause for this and not yet known. Newton compared this to the perfect uniformity of the bodies of animals. He also highlighted the concept that matter has different densities and forces. Sir Isaac Newton continued to speak on how people must analyze the use of experiments and observation to comprehend the universe. Overall, Newton was attempting to make the point, that God and Science are not necessarily two separate ideas.

Key Quotes:

• "All things being considered, it seems probable to me, that God in the Beginning formed Matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, moveable Particles, of such Sizes and Figures..."
• "As in Mathematics, so in Natural Philosophy, the Investigation of difficult Things by the Method of Analysis, ought ever to precede the Method of Composition."

Unit 4: The Blank Slate of the Mind

Author Bio: Lived from 1632 to 1704, John Locke was one of the most important individuals during the Scientific Revolution. He attended University at Oxford and became a doctor. He was very intrigued with how the human mind worked and made extremely significant contributions to the fields of psychology, philosophy, and more.

Speaker: John Locke

Date/Context: This document was written in 1690 during the Scientific Revolution and years of Enlightenment. At this time, psychologists and philosophers were still arguing about how the mind worked, if we were born with all of our beliefs and opinions, or if we started as a blank slate.

Summary: The document focuses on how the mind works. The question is: are people born with a set of beliefs and opinions, or is the mind a blank slate and experiences in the world shape us as people. Many people believe that when we are born, our minds already have set beliefs for the rest of our lives. But for others, our minds are tabula rasa (blank slate). Locke believes that people are born with no prior beliefs or knowledge, and that is acquired through the many experiences that we have in the world. Experiences throughout our lives shape us into the people that we are, and it is forever changing as we have different experiences.

Key Quotation

• "...if a child were kept in a place where he never saw any other but black and white till he were a man, he would have no more ideas of scarlet or green that he that from his childhood never tasted an oyster or a pineapple has of those particular relishes..."

Unit 4 Second Treaties of Civil Government

Author bio: Author John Locke(1632-1704) was an English political philosopher who's ideas later influenced the French and American revolutions. He is know as the father of liberalism. E was born in  Wrington, Somerset, England. He was a product of the English civil war.

Speaker- John Locke.

Date/Context: Two years before the second treaties of civil government king James II was ousted in the glorious revolution. The put king William III in instead. The second treaties of civil government was written to defend the reasons why the glorious revolution happened and to justify the actions of the people involved in it.

Summary: He starts out by saying penalties are needed to protect people. Through out the rest of the is explaining political power and it's origins. He starts out by explaining the law of nature. Were everyone is entirely free. They do not have the liberty to destroy themselves or other creatures. In the law of nature everyone is equal. They are only answerable to god. And only got can set someone higher than another. Natural communities work with everyone needing each other and everyone being equal. Then he talks about when you are allowed to harm someone else. He says if someone is threatening you with destruction or attempting to control you they are declaring war on you. You have the right to defend yourself if someone tries to take you liberties away. He says that no one wants absolute power unless he want to control you and make you a slave. Than he says the natural liberty says that no one be under the authority of another unless it is  represented and supported by the commonwealth, but they are not bound by laws. Under a government every person is bound under a rule of law not set by a person with absolute power. Only if the person agrees to be subordinate to the majority there is a society we're a government influenced by the people than there is a government. This government will make the law of the land but they will only be passed by the majority and the minority will have to follow. Society can only be reached if a groups of people work as one unit. Then he basically goes on to explain that people have to give up some freedom to protect the most important freedoms and liberties. Then he talks about how absolute power is not natural and not right. His last point is basically saying that government and laws are the fences of rights and liberties. His tone is defiantly defensive and in a lecturing tone.

Key quotes: 

"... what state all men are naturally i, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they hint fit, within the bounds of the law of nature; without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man."

" I should have a right to destroy that which threatens me with destruction..."

"The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man..."

" The only way, whereby any one divests himself of his natural liberty and puts on the bonds of civil society, is by agreeing with other men to join and unite into a community..."

" The reason why men enter into society, is the preservation of their property; and the end why they chose and authorize a legislative, is, that there may be laws made, and rules set, as guards and fences to the properties of all the members of the society, to limit the power, and moderate the dominion, of every part and member of the society..."

Unit 3: The Edict of Nantes

Author Bio: Author - Henry IV of France (1553-1610) was raised a Protestant, he became heir to the French throne through his marriage to Margaret of Valois, but was challenged during a time of religious strife. Despite converting to Catholicism after becoming king of France in 1589, weary of war and religious turmoil, Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes to foster religious tolerance.

Date/Context: The conflicts in France between Protestants and Roman Catholics due to the spread of Calvinism and increased tolerance of Huguenots was the Wars of Religion from 1562-1598. These were ended in an uneasy peace until Henry Navarre, a Huguenot, became heir to the French throne. This then led to the War of Three Henrys. This war was ended with Henry of Navarre’s embrace of Roman Catholicism and the granted religious toleration of Huguenots through the Edict of Nantes.

Summary: Called for the Catholic faith to be restored and reestablished anywhere the exercise of their faith had been interrupted. Henry wanted no more disputes among his subjects, the Edict gave Huguenots the freedom to practice their beliefs without being disturbed. It also forbid the practice of the Huguenots beyond the mountains, in Paris, or within the five leagues.

Key Quotations: 

• “We permit those of the so-called Reformed Religion to live and abide in all the towns and districts of this our Realm...free from inquisition, molestation, or compulsion to do anything in the way of religion…”

Unit 3: Abdication of Charles V

Authors Bio- Charles the V was the Holy roman emperor and king of Spain. He was also a catholic Christian. He died after two years of his abdication in 1558. Although most of his time was spent at war, Charles was a lover of peace.  The Habsburg Monarchy passed to Charles's younger brother Ferdinand, whereas the Spanish Empire was inherited by his son Philip II. The two empires would remain allies until the 18th century. Charles was only 56 when he abdicated, but after 34 years of rule he became exhausted and sought the peace of a monastery where he died at age 58.

Speaker- See above

Date and Context- The speech was given in 1556 when Charles was 56 years old and tired from the protest an reformation.

Summary- This speech was essentially Charles V's "retirement speech" from being Holy Roman Emperor. Being as tired as he was for holding the empire for so long, Charles decided to announce his voluntary abdication announcing his brother as the new holy roman emperor and his son Phillip the king of the Spain. He presents himself to people as the follower of God and a Catholic believing the Ideas of church and stating the importance of the follower of the church. He also describes his struggles and the political consequences that he had suffered in his time, and finally goes on to thank the people.

Key Quotation-" I am determined to retire to spain, to yield my son Phillip the possession of all my states and to my brother the king of all the romans and empire".

The Sighs of Enslaved France- Unit 2

Author Bio:
The author of the text is never specifically identified, but readers can assume it is from the thoughts of Pierre Jurieu. Pierre Jurieu is a Calvinist pastor who had fled to Holland. He endured an extensive amount of criticism from dissidents in exile. His memoirs are some of the most controversial because they view Louis's absolutism as oppressive and responsible for many downfalls of France.

Date/Context:
The text is from around 1690 and was a result of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. It is also during the time of prosecution against the Huguenots. It was written during a time where the government was absolutism and a monarchy

Summary:
In this text, Jurieu is essentially voicing his opinion on exorbitant taxes in France and the effect of those taxes. He establishes the fact that the taxes are unfair and extreme, also stating that the King at the time was taking advantage of his rule. He states that change needs to come quickly and the citizens need to stop allowing the government and king to take their money. He also comments on government spending of tax money, and how he thinks it is on unnecessary things that are effectively hurting the stability of the country.

Key Quotes:
"The oppression of the people is caused primarily by the prodigious number of taxes and excessive levies of money that are everywhere taken in France."
"Kings were established by the people to preserve their persons, lives, liberty and properties."

Unit 2: Precepts of Power

Author Bio: Precepts of Power is written by Niccolo Machiavelli. Over years of writing the Machiavelli name has become synonymous with evil. The church viewed his ideas as immoral and inspired by satan himself. Machiavelli was actually far from this description. He was a loyal citizen of Florence who had been well educated and schooled in the classics, and chose a career in public service. He disliked the rule of the Medici family and was a great advocate of republicanism. He was eventually named ambassador of France and stayed at this job until 1512, when his personally trained militia was defeated by a Spanish army.

Date/Context: Precepts of Power is from Niccolo Machiavelli’s “The Prince”. He wrote it after his time as ambassador of France was over, in 1512, and he had retired to the countryside. It was a time when the Medici family was being put back into power.

Summary: In the writings, Machiavelli talks about how he believes a prince should not act above the people, good or bad he should live with all of his subjects. A prince should also behave in manners tempered by prudence and humanity, and that they should always act with caution. He acknowledges that by saying this an argument arises; is it better to be loved than to be feared? Machiavelli believes that the prince should act as both. Next, Machiavelli describes how a prince should keep his word. He emphasizes that a prince should be known for his integrity and not by deceit that everyone already knows.

Key Quotation: “A prince must be cautious in believing and in acting, nor should he be afraid of his own shadow; and he should proceed in such a manner, tempered by prudence and humanity, so that too much trust may not render him imprudent nor too much distrust render him intolerable.”

Unit 3 - Economic Regulation "The Maxim of All Polite Nations"

Sir William Keith a renowned Lieutenant Governor began to preach the idea of a more regulated trade with the English colonies such as United States. Stating the whole idea of the patriotism towards the Mother State, which is England, and that all colonies must have their trade ruled by the English rather than the provincial government.
It begin with the first two paragraphs of his excerpt. His tone in his text had the influence of patriotism. It even excel to give the outmost respect towards the England. He stated that all trade must be controlled by the Mother State itself. He even protested that all trade not regulated by England is nothing more than an illegal action.
At the second, he express and listed the regulations and actions that must take place to commoditized England.
Finally, he stated that with these actions, England will flourish and expand to new heights. Then he concluded by restating the idea of England regulating the trade of any English colony.

Unit 2: Ninety-Five Theses

Author Bio- Martin Luther (10 November 1483 to 18 February 1546) was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. He strongly disputed his understanding of the Catholic view on indulgences, that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther taught that salvation and, subsequently, eternal life are not earned by good deeds but are received only as the free gift of God's grace. This is why Martin Luther wrote his Ninety Five Theses.

Summary- Martin Luther wrote his 95 theses in 1517 as a protest against the selling of indulgences.  Luther continued to write, elaborating on the issues raised.

Quotes-" When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said, ``Repent'' , he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance."

"This word cannot be understood as referring to the sacrament of penance, that is, confession and satisfaction, as administered by the clergy."

"Yet it does not mean solely inner repentance; such inner repentance is worthless unless it produces various outward mortification of the flesh."

Unit 2: Predestination

Author Bio:
Author - John Calvin: Originally a French lawyer, Calvin became a religious figure around and following 1530. After religious tensions in France forced him into Switzerland, he became a religious leader there and used his influence to eventually remove his opponents from power.

Date/Context: 1536; After the Lutheran reformation has established itself, other reformers of the church began to express their opinions. Calvin was particularly influential to Scotland and the Low Countries.

Summary: Calvin essentially states the theory of predestination, meaning that not all people can be admitted to heaven. Only some people can be admitted, and those who can are the ones who both lead good lives and follow his teachings.

Key Quotation: "The covenant of life is not preached equally to all, and among those to whom it is preached, does not always meet with the same reception."

Unit 2 - Spiritual Exercises

Author Bio: St. Ignatius of Loyal was a spanish priest who founded the Society of Jesus and then later became the society's first Superior General. Ignatius was mainly involved within the spiritual realm and was best known for his work Spiritual Exercises. This work includes meditations, prayers, and mental exercises. Ignatius in his early life joined the military, but after being badly wounded and after he recovered from his wound, Ignatius converted to the religious world.

Date/Context: Spiritual Exercises was written in 1548. Ignatius was severely injured during battle and after battle he received help from spiritual directors to get in touch with the spirits. He devoted his life to religious practices and saw many visions which later allowed him to write Spiritual Exercises. He designed this work to help people serve and love Christ.

Summary: This work is a compilation of various meditations, prayers, and mental exercises. Ignatius used this work to help people strengthen their relationship with god. In this work Ignatius uses many retreats in order ensure that people will follow Jesus no matter what the cost is. The exercises first to help the person reflect on their own life and then call to christ to follow him. Then the person learns how to follow christ and then they see the suffering displayed by christ. The spiritual exercises ensure that people will love and serve christ.

Key Quotations:

• "Always to be ready to one with mind and heart, setting aside all judgement of one's own, the true spouse of Jesus Christ, our holy mother our infallible and orthodox mistress, the Catholic Church, whose authority is exercised over us by hierarchy."
• "To have great esteem for religious orders, and to give the preference to celibacy or virginity over the married state."
• To praise relics, the veneration and innovation of Saints: also the stations, and pious pilgrimages, indulgences, jubilees, the custom of lighting candles in the churches, and other such aids to piety and devotion."

Unit 2 - "The Rule of Cosimo d'Medici"

Author Bio: Author - Vespasiano (1421-1498) - He was born in Rignano sull'Arno, Italy (a commune of Florence in the region of Tuscany); began his career as a stationer or dealer in parchment and paper. This was before he became the leading bookseller in Italy, right before the invention of printing; well known today for is humanistic beliefs, as well as being a librarian during the Renaissance period; most renowned pieces of work included multiple biographies and scribes; The Memoir of Vespasiano

speaker - Vespasiano da Bisticci (above)

Date/Context: "The Rule of Cosimo d'Medici" is one of Vespasiano's many biographies on famous political figures. It was written during the Renaissance, somewhere between 1421-1498. This excerpt is a small taste of the biography as a whole, however it can be found in a compilation of Vespasiano's works in "The Memoir of Vespasiano". The memoir contained most of Vespasiano's great biographies and scribes. These were translated and compiled together in 1963, to form the memoir. Overall, the excerpt of "The Rule of Cosimo d'Medici", highlights the kind of ruler and leader Cosimo was. It discusses his relationships with the citizens, as well as his acknowledgment and appreciation towards artists, architects, and other tradesman.

Summary: First, the excerpt begins by providing some background of the great Cosimo d'Medici. He spoke latin fluently and had an intense interest of associating with men of "high station". In other words, men who were well known for their knowledge rather than their money, or popularity. Continuing on, by Cosimo's twenty fifth birthday, he had received a wonderful reputation from the city. It had always been important to Cosimo, that he remained an "equal" to the people. He never wanted to be viewed as superior, however he still held a position of power. Vespasiano went on, he described Cosimo d'Medici as a man who never spoke ill of anyone. He explained that Cosimo would he get angry at those who spoke badly of someone else. Next, according to the excerpt, Cosimo was "well versed" and had the ability to hold a discussion with many kinds of men with many different occupations. He showed appreciation to many craftsmen, including a close friend, Donatello. Donatello was an incredible sculptor, and Cosimo's appreciation for artwork impacted Donatello greatly. Eventually, Cosimo ordered the bank to give Donatello enough money every week to take care of his work and four assistants.

Key Quotes: 

• "he never spoke ill of anyone, and it angered him greatly to hear slander spoken by others."
• "He was grave in temperament, prone to associate with men of high station who disliked frivolity, and averse from all buffoons and actors and those who spent time unprofitably."
• "the great mistake of his life was that he did not begin to spend his wealth ten years earlier;"

Unit 2: Scholarship and Art

Author Bio: The author focuses this peice on the ideas of Leon Battista Alberti, and from this peice I believe he is one of the most relevant voices of the Renaissance. The author, Giorgio Vasari, was a Da Vinci of his time- an architect, painter, and writer, focusin pg mostly on biographies of Italian renaissance artists. He studied in Florence, and actually had close ties with the Medici family. This gave him a pretty heavy bias toward Italian arts, and sometimes filled in facts with his own opinion. 

Context: Vasari is reflecting on Alberti's ideas of art and scholarship and exemplifying them in his own way. Alberti and Vasari lived in different decades, but his ideas were carried throught that gap of time and put back into the public by the author. Vasari is reflecting the idea that science is essential to have successful art, especially to the artist. This makes most sense in light of architecture. 


Summary: Not only is the knowledge of science useful to all, but especially artists.  Science provides knowledge and education needed to perfect art. This is most easily shown in architecture and sculpting. When an artist uses science in his work, he is also more likely to be accepted by the community. In Vasaris own commentary, he says that the idea of combining art and science is also personified in Alberti's work. 

"For the service, security, honor, and ornament of the public, we are exceedingly obliged to the architect; to whom, in time of leisure...in time of business...The whole of the human species, was most obliged to the architect, or rather, inventor of all conveniences.

Unit 2 "How Many Sins are Committed in a Single Day"

Author Bio: Johann Tetzel was a Roman Catholic friar and preacher. He studied at the University of Leipzig and was known for exchanging money for indulgences. Tetzel was later condemned from the church for life due to fraud and embezzlement.

Date/Context: Written in 1517 during the Renaissance.

Summary: Johann Tetzel is speaking directly to the reader. He begins by saying that the reader should feel blessed for the gifts that God has given them. He reminds the reader that life is difficult and sins surround us day by day. Tetzel notes that God is forgiving. He insists that through means of confession you will avoid Purgatory and find yourself in Heaven. Tetzel tells the reader that after confession, it takes seven years of penitence to rid yourself of a sin, whether this takes place in life, or in Purgatory. Tetzel wonders how many sins are committed in a single day, week, year, etc. by one person. He believes that anyone who commits a sin belongs suffering in Purgatory. Tetzel encourages the reader to exchange money for indulgences from the church that help you to get rid of your sins so you can get into Heaven.

Key Quotation: “Are you not willing, then, for the fourth part of a florin, to obtain these letters, by virtue of which you may bring, not your money but your divine and immortal soul safe and sound into the land of Paradise?”

Unit-1 "Alexander and the Brotherhood of Man"

Author Bio: Author-Plutarch (ca. AD 46 -AD 120).  Greek biographer, essayist, and Platonist philosopher who was born in Chaeronea, Boeotia; best known for writing "Parallel Lives" and "Moralia."  Even though he took some liberties with how accurate his accounts were, he always made sure that they were entertaining and informative to read.


Date/ Context: There has been much debate as to why Alexander the Great chose to conquer the Persian Empire and other large-scale empires. Was he a power hungry manic who got off on conquering his fellow man?  Was he motivated by irresistible curiosity or a desire for wealth?  Or did Alexander have bigger concerns altogether?  When he ordered his soldiers to take Persian brides, was he attempting by crossing blood and customs to break the mold between the intellectual and physical restraints of the Greek city-states, and therefore unite East and West?  Or was the creation of his mighty empire the result of impulse and coincidence?


Summary: Alexander the Great did not treat the Greeks as a leader, nor did he treat the barbarians as a master, instead treating the Greeks as friends and kinsmen, and treating the barbarians as wild animals or plants. If he did treat the Greeks as a leader, his kingdom would have been full of warfare, banishment, and secret plots, rather he saw himself as a divine being sent down to earth to keep the peace and rule the world.  If Alexander the Great failed to win people over with diplomacy, he conquered them in battle.  Alexander the Great conquered people from all over the world and united them as one under his rule, intermixing their lives, customs, marriages and standards of living.  Alexander the Great urged his conquered subjects to view his land as if it were their native homeland.  Alexander the Great saw good men as his fellow kinsman and those who commit evil deeds as aliens; he distinguished Greeks from barbarians not by their shields, swords, or tunics but by associating Hellenism with virtue and honor, and barbarians with evil deeds.  Alexander acted out of a desire to subject all the races of the world under one rule and one form of government.  In conclusion, Alexander the Great perceived himself as a god-like figure who was sent down to earth to unite all the races in the world under his mighty empire's rule and form of government, to make all of mankind united as one.



Key Quotations:

"Alexander did not follow Aristotle's advice to treat the Greeks as a leader, the barbarians as a master, cultivating the former as friends and kinsmen, and treating the latter as animals or plants."

"Had he done so his kingdom would have been filled with warfare, banishments and secret plots, but he regarded himself as divinely sent to mediate and govern the world."

"And those whom he failed to win over by persuasion he overpowered in arms, bringing them together from every land, combining, as it were in a loving cup, their lives, customs, marriages and manner of living; he bade them all look on the inhabited world as their native land, on his camp as their citadel and protection, on good men as their kinsmen and evil doers as aliens, and to not distinguish Greek from barbarian by the . . . shield, or the sword, or the sleeved tunic but to associate Hellenism with virtue and barbarians with evil doing . . ."        

"Instead he conducted himself as he did out of a desire to subject all the races in the world to one rule and one form of government, making all mankind a single people."

Unit 1 "Innocent Saves his Realm"

Author

American Editor Oliver Thatcher 

Born in 1827

Medieval historian and the editor of the multi-volume series of source material called the Library of Original Sources. He also edited the source material known as “A Source Book for Mediaeval History. Selected Documents.”

Speaker 

Pope Innocent III (1160 A.D. - 1216 A.D.)

One of the greatest popes known in Christian history. He is used as the main judge and final jury for a court towards a noble that has a quarrell towards John, King of England.

Background

This was a jury during the Victorian Era specifically under the rule of John, King of England ( 6th of April, 1199 till 19 October 1216). This was after the quarrel between the church and crown.

Summary

The whole entire document was a written description of Pope Innocent’s Acknowledgment of John’s the title of divine majesty. He states that the quarrel between any party that thinks ill of the king must end. Things like confederacy and conspiracy against the king must end. If any ill behavior against the king is made. Then they risk being excommunicated by the pope. He ends his decree with wishing that all those who is against the king, they must follow the king's order and wishes. As a return for their loyalty, John will be lenient and graciously grant them petition. Alongside with a promise of protection and support to those who follows and in trade for their loyalty.

Quotes 

“By our apostolic authority we hereby dissolve all conspiracy and confederacy that had been made since the quarrel between the crown and church began, and forbid them under the threat of excommunication”

“We ask and beseech the king in the lord that commanded him, in order to obtain forgiveness of his sins, to treat you leniently, and graciously to grant you petitions.”

“We order you to endeavor by clear proofs of humility and devotion to placate you king and to win his favor  rendering him those customary services high you and your ancestors have paid to him and his predecessors.”

Unit 1 - "Abuse of Power"

Author Bio: Suetonius (ca. 70-130 A.D.) Roman biographer and historian who wrote during the Imperial Era of the Roman Empire.

Date/Context: Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

Summary: The people believed that Julius Caesar was killed for a good reason. He believed that Julius Caesar was too conceited and thought too highly of himself. He gave himself so many honors that were not possible for a mortal. He had a golden throne in the House, a chariot and litter in the procession at the circuses. Caesar had too many statues, temples, and altars dedicated to himself. He put himself next to the gods. Any honor that could be received, he got. Anything Julius Caesar said, would become a law. After awhile, people began to resent him. It's a controversial topic whether or not Caesar deserved to be killed or not.

Key Quotations:

"But it was the following action that roused deadly hatred against him."
"Yet after all, his other actions and words so turn the scale, that it is thought that he abused his power and was justly slain."
"No less arrogant were his public utterances..."

Unit 1: The Reforms of Lycurgus

Author Bio:
Author - Plutarch: Plutarch was a Greek scholar and writer who lived until 120 CE. He is most famous for writing biographies of several influential Greeks and Romans. Besides his writings he spent his time as a magistrate or priest at Delphi.

Subject - Lycurgus: Lycurgus is a figure with not much known for fact about him, but we can draw predictions based on other parts of Plutarch's biography. Lycurgus was the younger brother of the Spartan king until the brother fell ill and died. Lycurgus was offered the throne and he assumed power until it was discovered the former king had died with a pregnant wife. Lycurgus offered the crown to the baby and served as regent until he feared that conspirators may kill the baby and frame him. Lycurgus then spent the next many years traveling the eastern Mediterranean and sampling the governments there. When he was begged to return to Sparta Lycurgus started a policy of incremental changes to society, and once these were complete, he extracted an oath from every Spartan citizen to follow his laws until his return. Lycurgus then traveled to Delphi to receive messages from the oracle, afterwards starving himself to death so the Spartans would be forced to follow his laws forever.

Date/Context:
This section of a biography was written by a Roman many centuries after the actual man Lycurgus, if he existed, would have died. We see this writing more as an explanation for what Plutarch saw as the root of contemporary Spartan behavior.

Summary:
The biography begins by talking about currency, and how Lycurgus saw to make the wealthy focus on more useful things by making the state currency of Sparta be worthless when traded anywhere else. Further, by making the currency impossible to steal in sufficient quantities for profit, Lycurgus massively dropped the crime rate. Next, the biography tells how the rich were made to the same level as the poor in society by forcing everyone to eat the same thing, at the same time, in the same place, at the same table. The rich were unable to enjoy the fruits of their success, so they did not become fat and bloated leaches on society. Thirdly, the biography talks about the method by which children were raised in Sparta. Children were judged from the moment they were born, by age seven they were taken to a communal barracks where the most obedient were put in charge. By the time the children grew older they were found to be both disciplined and insightful. By being accustomed to long periods of silence, the Spartans gained favor for their short but intelligent remarks.

Key Quotation:
"The third and most masterly stroke of this great lawgiver, by which he struck a yet more effectual blow against luxury and the desire of riches, was the ordinance he made..."

Unit 1- "The Imperial Army"

Author Bio: Flavius Josephus was a Jewish historian during Roman times. He fought in a war against the Romans, as well as becoming a slave translator for emperor Vaspasian, and eventually gained his freedom and took on the family name of Flavius. His background gives him a large knowledge of the Roman Army, and makes him an excellent person to explain it.

Date/Context: The context that this was written, was sometime during the reign of the Roman Emperor Vaspaian, because he was the one who granted Flavius his freedom from slavery, as well as his Roman citizenship. In the Roman Empire, this is still a time for expansion and conquering, because he talks of the Romans expanding their military forces.

Summary: Flavius gives a thorough explanation of the Imperial Army of Rome in this text. He describes, with much pride, the perfect discipline instilled into the troops, and their perfect rank and order, every soldier knows his place, and stays perfectly in it. He describes the perfect organization, and at the sound of a trumpet, every man knew exactly what he had to do, whether it was to pack up, burn the previous ground, or move out, no man was left not understanding what he had to do.

Key Quotes: 
"As though they had been born with weapons in hand, they never have a truce from training, never wait for emergencies to arise."
"When the camp is to be broken up, the trumpet sounds a first call; at that none remain idle..."