Unit 1- "The Petrine Thoery"

Author Bio: The author of this article is Pope Leo I (c. 400-461 AD). Leo I was an Roman aristocrat and he was the first pope ever to have been called "the Great". He was most famous for encountering Attila the Hun, where Leo I persuaded Attila the Hun to draw back his invasion of Italy. Pope Leo I was also a Doctor of the Church.

Date/Context: During the early Middle Ages, the Catholic Church and the Church in the East were not unified. The Church in the East's members questioned whether or not the Pope was the leader of the Catholic Church. The Petrine Theory retells the actual role of the Pope in the Catholic Church

Summary:  The Petrine Theory is to confirm the declaration of Papacy in the Roman Catholic Church. Next, Leo I states that Jesus Christ gave the the papacy to all of the apostle, and that Jesus Christ made St. Peter the head of all of them. Leo I then goes on to explain the disapproval of those who feel separating from the papacy is better. Then, he states that the Bishops will take over the papacy after the apostles are gone. He gave the head of the churches to the successor of st, Peter.

Key Quotations:
- "Our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world, caused his truth to be promulgated through the apostles."
- "And while this duty was placed on all the apostles, the Lord made St. Peter the head of them all, that from him as from their head his gifts should flow out into all the body."
- "But secular matters are based on one thing, ecclesiastical matters on another."
- "In my humble person he [Peter] should be seen and honored who has the care over all shepherds and sheep committed to him, and whose dignity is not lacking in me, his heir, although I am unworthy."

Unit 1 - "A Christian Defense"

Author: Tertullian (c. 160-230 C.E.) – Christian author from Carthage in Rome, influenced by Stoic philosophy,  the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature, a notable Christian apologist, Tertullian has been called "the father of Latin Christianity" and "the founder of Western theology”

Date/Context: Carthage was an early center for Christianity. While at first scarce in number, Christians soon populated Carthage quite heavily. This obviously impacted Tertullian a great deal. In 197 C.E., Tertullian wrote that Christians “have filled every place among you —cities, islands, fortresses, towns, market-places, the very camp, tribes, companies, palaces, senate, forum; we have left nothing to you but the temples of your gods”.

Summary: Addressing the magistrates of the Roman Empire, Tertullian attempts to clarify as well as defend Christianity from pagan misconception. Appealing to the power of the magistrates, he pleads for them to understand the truths of Christianity as he perceives them before they pass a judgment. He notes that it would not be fair to judge Christianity without first learning about it. Tertullian believes that the misconceptions and the demeaning of Christianity is largely due to ignorance of the religion. He also mentions that Christians are not allowed to say anything that would clear their name of a crime, whereas a non-Christian is given the benefit of the doubt. Tertullian tells the magistrates that Christians pray for them and for the emperors. Most importantly, however, he says that although maltreated, Christians pray for Rome and the continuance of the empire.

Key Quotations:

 “Truth makes no appeal on her own behalf, because she does not wonder at her present condition”

“Men remain in ignorance as long as they hate, and they hate as long as they remain in ignorance” 

Unit 1: "The Theory of Edward Gibbon"

Author Bio: Edward Gibbon (1737 CE - 1794 CE) - a prime model of the Enlightenment era; known for a story telling style; one of the founding fathers of history as a profession. After discovering Catholicism, his father forcing him back to study Calvinism, and a reluctant return to the Protestant faith, Gibbon held a strong distaste for religion.

Speaker: Edward Gibbon, above

Date/Context: It was written during Enlightenment Period, a time in which people began to emphasize reason and better understand the scientific way of how things worked. The first volume appeared in 1776 and the last in 1787. The book came to be rather controversial, as it was disputing religion, which had rarely been done so pointedly before.

Summary: Gibbon’s main argument is that Christianity played a major part in the fall of the Roman Empire. Part of his reasoning was the fact that the church preached its doctrines far too much, and all military sprit was gone. Also, the wealth went to charity instead of taxes or an army, and the state became distracted with arguments on religion rather than focusing on defending and growing its empire. However, religion impacted the Romans in beneficial ways as well. Christianity taught many to obey a lawful emperor, and the Bible helped many soldiers keep faith with their leaders and not fear death.

Key Quotation: “… the church, and even the state, were distracted by religious factions… the attention of the emperors was diverted from camps to [church] synods…”

“If the decline of the Roman empire was hastened by the conversion of [the Emperor] Constantine, his victorious religion broke the violence of the fall, and mollified the ferocious temper of the conquerors.”

Unit 1: "The Breakdown of Roman Unity"

Author Bio: Sallust was a Roman politician. He was born a plebeian, yet became a governor in Africa. He was influenced mainly by the Greek historian Thucydides. He is the earliest known Roman historian, he has many very influential works such as Cataline's war, The Jugurthine War, and The Histories.

Date/Context: The background to this text, is after the Punic Wars, near the end of the Age of Peace, Rome has not had any serious threat for some time, and while keeping its borders strong, it has neglected to see that it's interior is changing, nobles are abusing their power, citizens are abusing their liberty, and the empire is becoming a nasty place to live. This is due to a lazy Rome and an ignorance of its citizens.

Summary: In this text, Sallust is addressing the Age of Peace after the end of the Punic Wars. He states that this peaceful time has led to the downfall of Rome. During this time, the nobles began to abuse their power over the common people, he uses examples of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, and how they were murdered for questioning the power of the nobles. He also addresses how the threat of Carthage kept atoms in line and made it necessary for the people to have morals, and therefore when there were no worries, Rome became lazy and thus began its downfall and degradation.

Key Quotations: 
"There was no strife among the citizens for glory and power; fear of the enemy preserved the good morals of the state."
"Thus the peace [the people of Rome] had longed in time of adversity itself, after they gained it proved to be more cruel and bitter than adversity itself."
"For the nobles began to abuse their position, and the people their liberty, and every man for himself robbed, pillaged, and plundered."

Unit 1- "The Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont"

Author bio: Robert the Monk(1047-1122) was a latin historian of the first crusade. He was one of the Benedictine brethren at the monastery of St-Rémi in Reims. He is the author of influential history of the first crusade. He did not participate in it but wrote the accounts as a request of of his abbot.

Speaker: Robert the monk and Pope Urban II: he was pope from 1088-1099. He is the one that suggested the men take back the holy land. His speech essentially started the first crusade.

Date/context: this is a speech the was the start of the expedition to free the holy land from the museums. Catholicism was on the rise and trying to gain power. The speech was given in 1095 to call people to action against the muslims. This is the start of the first crusade(1096-1099) which is is the Middle Ages (1000-1300). The aim was to take back the holy land.

Summary: There was a great council held at clear mount where many cardinals bishops and princes from several countries attended. The pope is then quoted in for his speech that he gave. It starts out by describing the persons having the holy land and killing and torturing Catholics. This is said in a disgusted angry kind of tone, but the language is persuasive. He goes into detail about what was happening to exaggerate his next pint. The he goes on to say that they should fight for the holy land back. That it is their duty to god and if they love something more will get turned away by god. He says they will be forgiven for their sins and go to heaven. Then he goes on to say that they need more land for the population and for food. He really lays on the reasons out of the Bible to get the persuaded. He says they will succeed because god is on their side. The entire speech was a persuasive one and the tone towards the end was confident and excited. Robert monk goes onto explain that people thought the pope spoke the word of god and everyone rallied at that.

Key quotes: 
“The sass news has  from Jerusalem and Constantinople that the people of Persia, an accursed and foreign race, enemies of God, a generation that set not their heart aright, and whose spirit was not stedfast with god, have invalided the lands of those Christian's and devastated them with sword, Rapine and fire.”

“There is not much wealth here, and the soil scarcely yields enough for you.”

“When pope urban had said this and much more of the same sort, all who were present were moved to cry out with one accord, it is the will of god, it is the will of god.”

Unit 1-"Absolute Tyranny

Author bio: author- Appian(95-165 AD) was a Roman historian of Greek origin that was born in Alexandria center of learning. Appian records shifts in power and societal changes. He is underrated because we don't know much about him because most of his autobiography was lost. He flourished during the reigns of Emperors of Rome Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was around when Rome had its autocratic rule and he is seeing this tyrannical dictator take the empire. 

Speaker-  Appian, it is from his point of view. 

Date and context: the ascendency of generals(100-45 BCE) this took place during the wrath of Sulla, a Roman general that is seeking revenge on mariuss men(82 BCE). This was a time when generals would recruit men that were unemployed and had no land. They were professional soldiers and stayed loyal to the generals allowing them to take run by killing and fear. Marius started this all but Sulla is competing for power against him. 

Summary: This description details the atrocities of Sullas tyrannical raise to power. Sulla is inflicting terror on the city of Rome. His seeks to bring out order through fear, but he also said he would bring change to those that followed him and death to those who do not. Sulla goes around killing his enmities in many ways. He started out by going after forty senators and 1600 equites. But he kept going from there. His soldiers would sometimes kill them where they found them or bring them to Sulla. This action made him the de facto leader of the city. The tone of the piece is written in disgust and terror. He is trying to record the tyranny that happened before him and the city. Appian outlines the terrible way in which sullas rose to power. 

Key Quotations:

“He finished by saying that he would bring about change which would be beneficial to the people if they would obey him, but of his enemies he would spare none, but would visit them with the utmost severity.”

“Others were dragged through the city and trampled on, none of the spectators daring to utter a word of remonstrance against these horrors.”

“Thus Sulla became king, or tyrant, a de facto-not elected but holding power by force and violence....” 

Unit 1 - "The Funeral Oration of Pericles" - PDP Sample

NOTE:  This is a sample PDP compiled from our discussion.  

PDP Directions:

• Before you read, learn about the author of the document:  When & where did he/she live?  How do his/her experiences shape their portrayal of the event (i.e. bias)?   
• While you read the document, consider tone, purpose, and argument (including the words that were chosen to deliver the message).  
• Finally, when you've finished, please follow this FORMAT when creating your own PDP as a unique POST to our class blog.  The TITLE of your post should include the unit number AND the name of the document.
• If you have ANY difficulties, please see or contact Mrs. Friday!

Author Bio:  Author - Thucydides (ca. 460-400 BCE) - Greek historian who was born in Alimos;  a product of Sophist movement; considered the father of scientific history & founder of modern historiography; strove to maintain impartiality & accuracy in his accounts

Speaker - Pericles (ca. 495-429 BCE, r. 461-429 BCE) - leader of Athens largely responsible for Delian League; initiates rebuilding of Parthenon for glory of Athens & as public works project; called "the first citizen of Athens" by Thucydides

Date/Context:  Alliances between competing city-states created tensions in Greek world; Athens as democracy; The beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BCE), in which Sparta and its allies (Peloponnesian League) are fighting with Athens and its allies (Delian League) in order to check the imperialistic Athens’ power; this speech was delivered in 430 at the beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars

Summary: In this speech to widows and parents of the fallen soldiers, Pericles describes the greatness of Athenian society as a justification for the deaths and continued fighting.  Pericles highlights the individual’s status in democracy: he has free will to go about his pursuits but, when called upon by the state, he willingly defends her (i.e. the state) to keep her free. He extols the glories of Athens as a mighty city-state founded on knowledge and reason, and he tells these relatives that any man should be proud to fight and die for such a wonderful and admirable cause. He describes the men as honorable and praises their sacrifice. He declares Athens to be superior to Sparta, and that although the Athenian soldiers do not undergo such rigorous training as Spartans they are no less brave and should be esteemed highly for their sacrifice. Further, he emphasizes that after completing hard work, one should enjoy beauty and wealth. Finally, he reminds citizens to be proud of their sacrifice and to continue to fight and work in support of this great city.

Key Quotation: (quotations for all groups are listed below)

• “I have no wish to make a long speech on subject familiar to you all: so I shall say nothing about the warlike deeds by which we acquire our power or the battles in which we or our fathers gallantly resisted our enemies greek or foreign.”
• “Happiness depends on being free, and freedom depends on being courageous.”
• “Others are brave out of ignorance; and, when they stop to think, they begin to fear. But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and of what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.”
• “But the man who can most truly be accounted brave is he who best knows the meaning of what is sweet in life and what is terrible, and then goes out undeterred to meet what is to come.”
• “Our love of what is beautiful does not lead to extravagance; our love of the things of the mind does not make us soft.”